The history of Western calligraphy, from uncial to the revival
In 783 the Godescalc Evangelistary was completed, the first manuscript written in Carolingian minuscule. Such landmarks help trace the history of Western calligraphy, the art of writing practised in the West, mainly in the Latin alphabet but also in Cyrillic and Greek. This article follows its development from Roman book hands to the modern revival, covering late antiquity to the early 20th century.
From Papyrus to Uncial: The Beginnings of the Book Hand
In late antiquity the codex gradually replaced the papyrus scroll, and quill pens replaced reed pens. These changes in book format and writing tools accompanied the development of calligraphy.
From about the 5th century, uncial and half-uncial developed from Roman book hands. These Roman origins are a thread running through the history of Western calligraphy: Italian scribes returned to Roman models in the 15th century.
Monasteries, Illumination and Carolingian Minuscule
From about the 7th century, the ability to read and write Latin was increasingly confined to monasteries. Around the 8th century illumination, the decoration of manuscripts, reached early medieval Europe. Early examples include the Book of Durrow, the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.
Carolingian minuscule arose at the court of Charlemagne. The first manuscript written in it was the Godescalc Evangelistary, completed in 783. Blackletter developed from this script, and Italian scribes later returned to Carolingian models.
Blackletter and the Italian Return to Roman Models
In the 12th century blackletter developed from Carolingian minuscule, together with a variant known as rotunda. In northern Europe the script became increasingly narrow and sharp, while in Italy and Spain the rounder rotunda was preferred. These regional differences gave northern and southern scripts distinct appearances.
In the 15th century Italian scribes returned to Roman and Carolingian models. They created the cursive, or italic, and the Roman book hand. Blackletter, italic and roman became models for printing types, so handwriting directly shaped the appearance of print. Gutenberg printed his Bible in blackletter, but the lighter italic and roman later became the standard.
What Happened to Calligraphy After Printing?
Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were produced in the Middle Ages. As printing spread, the production of illuminated manuscripts declined, but calligraphy continued.
Official documents were still written by hand in the 18th century, so handwriting remained a practical skill. Printing mainly changed how books were made.
The Revival and the Father of Modern Calligraphy
The revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19th century under the influence of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement. Edward Johnston is regarded as the father of modern calligraphy. He wrote with a broad, flat pen, and from 1899 he taught calligraphy at the Central School of Arts and Crafts in London. His manual "Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering" appeared in 1906.
This account ends with the publication of Johnston's manual, having traced the development of Western calligraphy from Roman book hands through uncial, Carolingian minuscule and blackletter.
Summary
The history of Western calligraphy follows a continuous thread from uncial through Carolingian minuscule and blackletter to the revival that began at the end of the 19th century. Carolingian minuscule offers a useful starting point for studying these styles because it links the earlier and later stages.